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Introduction Bladder cancer is a form of cancer affecting the internal lining of the bladder. Bladder cancer can be superficial or invasive. What is going on in the body? Cancer occurs when a cell undergoes changes that cause it to grow and multiply uncontrollably. Eventually a tumor will form. More than one tumor in the bladder may develop at the same time. If not treated, a tumor will grow through the bladder wall. It may then spread to structures around the bladder. Cells from the tumor can also enter the bloodstream and spread to distant parts of the body, a process known as metastasis. What are the causes and risks of the disease? Use of tobacco products, smoking in particular, may lead to bladder cancer. The cancer-causing chemicals are absorbed in the lungs and then excreted into the urine. The lining of the bladder is exposed to concentrated amounts of these poisons for long periods. Other chemicals, such as aniline dyes, are known to cause similar damage. ...

 Introduction Bacterial meningitis is an infection of the membranes that cover the brain. It is caused by a bacteria. What is going on in the body? There are a number of different organisms that can cause bacterial meningitis. They generally begin growing in a person's nose and throat. If not stopped by the immune system, the bacteria go on to invade the body. They can enter the bloodstream and travel to the central nervous system. The infection then settles in the fluid and the membranes around the brain. The resulting inflammation is responsible for many of the symptoms of meningitis. It may also play a role in some of the complications. What are the causes and risks of the infection? Bacterial meningitis is caused by a bacteria that usually enters the body through the person's nose or throat. The bacteria can be transmitted to newborns during labor and delivery. Many people can have the bacteria in their noses or throats without developing menin...

 Introduction This test detects an antibody known as ASO, or anti-streptolysin O. This antibody appears when a person has certain bacteria in the blood. The bacteria are Group A streptococcus, which make an enzyme called streptolysin O. This enzyme destroys red blood cells. Who is a candidate for the test? This test can be used to: confirm a recent or ongoing infection with Group A streptococcus help diagnose rheumatic fever or a streptococcal infection in the kidneys determine whether a person has rheumatoid arthritis or rheumatic fever How is the test performed? To do the test, a blood sample is taken from a vein on the forearm or hand. First, the skin over the vein is cleaned with an antiseptic. Next, a strong rubber tube, or tourniquet, is wrapped around the upper arm. This enlarges the veins in the lower arm by restricting blood flow through them. A fine needle is gently inserted into the vein chosen and the tourniquet is removed. Blood flows from ...

What is going on in the body? Athlete's foot is usually caused by a fungus called Trichophyton. It is a common condition that affects some people more than others. The infection is generally limited to the top layer of skin. What are the causes and risks of the disease? Sometimes this condition becomes so uncomfortable that the person cannot perform his or her daily routine. If the infection causes skin breakdown, a bacterial infection can result. Bacterial infection can be very harmful, and sometimes, life threatening. What are the signs and symptoms of the disease? Itching is the most common and annoying symptom of this condition. It usually is what causes a person to check his or her feet for problems. Athlete's foot usually appears as an itchy, red rash between the toes or underneath the arch of the foot. When the condition is severe, small blisters may form, which sometimes contain pus. Sometimes the skin may look inflamed, dry, and scaly, or it m...

Smallpox Introduction Smallpox (also called variola) is the only disease that has been completely wiped out throughout the world. Smallpox is also potentially one of the most devastating biological weapons ever conceived. Due to the success of an intense worldwide public health initiative, not one documented naturally occurring case of this highly infectious, deadly disease has occurred since October 26, 1977. (An unvaccinated hospital cook in Somalia was the last person to naturally contract smallpox.) The World Health Organization (WHO) officially declared smallpox eradicated in 1980. At that time, all remaining collected supplies of the smallpox virus were supposed to be destroyed or sequestered in two laboratories, one in the United States and one in Russia. Geopolitical events in the last decade and revelations concerning offensive biological warfare programs by certain foreign governments have raised concern that this virus may have fallen into the hands of ...

Introduction Sickle cell anemia is an inherited blood disease. It causes serious health problems among African Americans or individuals of African descent. What is going on in the body? Hemoglobin is the key molecule in the blood that carries oxygen to all parts of the body. A change in a certain gene causes a change in the structure of hemoglobin. Persons with normal hemoglobin have a genetic coding of AA. Persons with sickle cell trait have a genetic coding of AS. (The "S" refers to the sickle cell gene.) Eight percent of African Americans are carriers of the sickle cell gene, and are said to have sickle cell trait. Most people with sickle cell trait are completely healthy and lead normal lives. Persons with the genetic coding SS have a double dose of the abnormal hemoglobin gene. They develop sickle cell anemia. It affects approximately 15 out of every 1000 African Americans. In sickle cell anemia the red blood cells change shape from a rounded di...

Introduction Burkitt lymphoma is a form of cancer that primarily affects children living in certain areas of Africa. Burkitt lymphoma is also found in North America, but it is rare. Adults can also be affected. What is going on in the body? Burkitt lymphoma occurs when a specialized white blood cell called the B-lymphocyte undergoes cancerous changes. The cells begin to grow and multiply out of control. The cancerous cells form tumors. Burkitt lymphoma is aggressive. This means that once it develops, it can grow quickly. There are two types of Burkitt lymphoma: the African form and the North American form. In the African form, tumors form under the jaw and in the abdomen. It is associated with an infection caused by the Epstein-Barr virus. This is a common virus, and most people recover from it. However, in African children, Epstein-Barr virus causes cells to turn cancerous. No one is sure why. One theory is that children who have had malaria, which is common in Africa, have ...

   Introduction Chronic myelogenous leukemia, which is also called CML, is a kind of cancer that occurs in a specialized white blood cell called a myelocyte. The cancerous change often takes place in the bone marrow, where all blood cells are made. CML is slow to develop and may affect a person for many years. What is going on in the body? When the cancerous cells grow in the bone marrow, normal bloods cells are often destroyed or crowded out. Having fewer normal white cells can cause the person to become infected easily. The infections may be serious and life-threatening. Having fewer platelets means that the person may bruise or bleed easily. Anemia, or low numbers of red blood cells, can make the person weak and easily tired. CML cells eventually leave the bone marrow and travel throughout the body in the bloodstream. So many CML cells may enter the bloodstream that the blood becomes too thick. The number of CML cells may be as many as a 150 times...

Who is a candidate for the procedure? A person may undergo a bone marrow biopsy in order to: diagnose different types of leukemia when a blood test shows suspicious cell changes follow the response to a leukemia treatment help in diagnosis and treatment of certain other cancers diagnose and monitor the treatment of certain noncancerous blood disorders How is the procedure performed? First, the skin over the rear of the pelvic bone is cleansed. Local anesthesia is used to numb the area. Sometimes a drug is given intravenously to help calm the person having the procedure. A hollow stainless steel needle is inserted into the back part of the pelvic bone. Once it is inside the bone, a sample of the liquid marrow is drawn into the syringe. Sometimes a larger hollow needle is used to obtain a solid core specimen of marrow from the same area. No incision or sutures are needed. The sample taken is checked under a microscope for abnormal cells.     ...

  Who is a candidate for the procedure? Lung transplantation is only offered to persons who have severe failure of their lungs. These are people who doctors feel will not live longer than 1 to 2 years unless they receive a replacement lung. The main reasons for having a lung transplant include: emphysema, a chronic lung disease pulmonary fibrosis, a respiratory disease caused by inhaling asbestos fibers cystic fibrosis, an inherited disease that affects the respiratory and digestive systems alpha-1-antitrypsin deficiency, a deficiency of a protein produced in the liver that is associated with emphysema and liver disease pulmonary hypertension, a condition in which pressure in the blood vessels of the lungs increases. This increased pressure causes damage to the blood vessels and heart. decreased lung function that interferes with normal activities A person is evaluated by a team of healthcare professionals to see if he or she is a good candidate for a lu...

What is going on in the body? The term upper respiratory infection (URI) includes the common cold, sore throats, and flu. URIs are usually caused by a virus but may also be due to bacteria or other organisms. An upper respiratory infection is rarely serious but often causes bothersome symptoms. What are the causes and risks of the infection There are many different types of upper respiratory infections, including: the common cold, usually due to a virus the flu, or influenza virus infection, which causes more severe symptoms than a cold acute sinusitis or chronic sinusitis, which involve the nasal sinuses otitis externa, or infection of the outer ear acute otitis media, or infection of the middle ear behind the eardrum pharyngitis, or sore throat acute bronchitis, an infection in the lower windpipes croup, which is a viral infection of the main windpipe that is usually only seen in children epiglottitis, a bacterial infection of the main windpipe that i...

Who is a candidate for the procedure? A thyroid scan is usually done when a lump is felt in the thyroid gland or when there is an abnormal increase or decrease of thyroid hormone levels in the blood. How is the procedure performed?  The person is asked to either drink a liquid or take a pill that contains radioactive iodine. The radioactive iodine goes into the thyroid gland over the next several hours. About four hours after taking the iodine, the person is asked to lie down on a table below a special camera that can detect the radioactive material. While the person lies very still, the camera takes pictures of the thyroid gland. It takes about 30 to 60 minutes to take all the required pictures. Usually, the person is asked to come back 24 hours later to have a second set of pictures taken, which only takes about 5 minutes. The pattern of the pictures can tell the healthcare provider what may be wrong with the thyroid gland. Some areas of the gland may take up m...

What is going on in the body? Strep throat is the most common of the many infections that are caused by group A streptococci, or GAS. The bacteria that causes strep throat makes a toxin that results in an infection in the throat and tonsils. A person can develop symptoms of strep throat from 1 to 6 days after being exposed to the bacteria. Symptoms in up to 40% of children may be too mild to diagnosis. Up to 20% of school-aged children may be carriers of the bacteria. These children will show no symptoms but can transmit strep throat to others. A sore throat accompanied by fever is caused by a virus 70% of the time. Without treatment, uncomplicated viral infections usually subside within 3 to 10 days after onset. Strep throat is more significant because of the increased incidence of complications. What are the causes and risks of the disease? Strep throat is a bacterial infection that is usually spread by person-to-person contact through coughing or sneezing. Exposure to...

What is going on in the body? CHF is caused by a number of complex problems that cause the pumping chambers of the heart to fail. The heart is divided into a left heart and right heart. In a healthy heart, the right heart receives oxygen-poor blood from the body and pumps it to the lungs. The blood receives a fresh supply of oxygen as it passes through the lungs. The oxygen-rich blood is then pumped back into the left heart, which pumps it out to the rest of the body. If the pumping chambers of the heart do not function well, blood stays in the lungs or in the tissues of the body. These areas then become congested with blood and fluid. And that is the basis for the name congestive heart failure. In time, the organs and tissues begin to suffer from not getting enough blood and oxygen. What are the causes and risks of the condition? CHF can be caused by many diseases and conditions. Coronary heart disease, also called CHD, is a major cause of CHF. Multiple or severe heart attacks...

How is the test performed? This test is usually performed in the morning, right after waking up. The person is asked to rinse his or her mouth with water to avoid a poor sample. After taking several deep breaths, the person then coughs deeply. This should bring up enough of a material from deep in the lungs known as sputum. Sputum is different from spit. The sputum sample is then taken to a lab. The lab can then examine the sample with a microscope    What is involved in preparation for the test? Instructions on sample collection are provided to people having this test. No other special preparation is needed   What do the test results mean? Usually, sputum contains some normal cells. No cells that look like cancer should be in the sample. If cancer cells are seen, the person usually has lung cancer.

What is Skin Cancer?   skin cancer is the abnormal growth of skin cells, and it can occur at any time and on any area of the skin. There are three different types of skin cancer, and the type that you have will determine the best treatment options for you. The majority of skin cancer is fairly easy to treat and rarely spreads. However, there is a third type of skin cancer that is called melanoma. This is the rarest type of skin cancer, but it can also be the most serious  especially when it is not caught early. Because of this, it is important to understand what skin cancer is, how you can prevent it and what the early screening methods are   Early signs of skin cancer  Among the most common early signs of skin cancer is when you notice a change in the color of your skin, and more especially when you notice a new growth or when there is a sore that refuses to heal. However, there no doubts that the early signs of skin cancer may not all ...

what is the meaning of cholesterol   is a fat-like substance that forms a part of each cell in your body. A person is body needs cholesterol for daily functions, such as making hormones, producing healthy cell walls and making vitamin D. It also produces bile acids that help in the digestion of fat. Cholesterol comes from animal-based food like dairy products, eggs and meat. The two types of cholesterol are low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL). LDL is the bad cholesterol that usually cause the clogging of blood vessels, while HDL is the good cholesterol that is responsible for clearing LDL out of your bloodstream, reducing the risks of heart disease HDL Is Beneficial to a Person Health   Good cholesterol or HDL scours the walls of the blood vessels and cleans up unwanted and extra cholesterol. It is thus necessary for persons affected with elevated cholesterol levels and whose HDL levels are below 40 mg/DL, to take steps...